The Writing Process

How to Write a Research Paper

(Thought-Random)

Edited by Jackie Sinclair, Jack Herrick, Jamie Littlefield, Imperatrix and 71 others

 

When studying at higher levels of school and throughout college, you will likely be asked to prepare research papers. A research paper can be used for exploring and identifying scientific, technical and social science issues. If it's your first time writing a research paper, it may seem daunting. However, with good organization and clarity of focus, you can make the process easier on yourself. It won't write itself, but you can plan and prepare well so that the writing falls into place.Method 1 of 4: Choosing Your Topic

1. 
   1
   Ask yourself important questions. Although you may be limited by specific classroom or work related guidelines, choosing your topic is the first and most important step in your research paper project. Regardless of whether your topic can be anything you want or has a more rigid rubric, it is important to keep a few questions in mind: is there enough research available on this topic? Is the topic new and unique enough that I can offer fresh opinions? Is it pertinent to my class/occupation?
2. 2
   Pick something you love. Whenever possible, choose a topic that you feel passionate about. Writing about something you enjoy certainly shows in the final product, making it more likely that you will be successful writing a paper about something you enjoy.
3. 3
   Stay original.If you are writing a research paper for a class, consider the other students. Is it likely that they will also be writing about your topic? How can you keep your paper unique and interesting if everyone is writing about the same thing?
4. 4
   Get advice. If you are struggling to come up with a topic that feels “just right,” ask your professor or coworkers/classmates for advice. They will likely have great ideas that, even if they aren’t options for you to choose, can inspire you with new ideas. Asking a professor for help may seem frightening, but they want you to be successful with your work, and will do what they can to make that happen.
5. 5
   Don’t be afraid to change your topic. If you choose a topic, begin researching, and realize that it isn’t the right decision for you for some reason, don’t fret! Although it requires a bit more time, you have the ability to change your topic even after you begin researching others.

Method 2 of 4: Researching

1. 
   1
   Begin your research. With a topic selected, the next step is to begin research. Research comes in numerous forms including web pages, journal articles, books, encyclopedias, interviews, and blog posts, among others. Take time to look for professional resources who offer valid research and insight into your topic. Try to use a minimum of five sources to vary your information; never rely on only 1-2 sources.^[1]
2. 2
   Look for empirical research. Whenever possible, look for peer reviewed empirical research. These are articles or books written by experts in your field of interest, whose work has been read and vouched for by other experts in the same field. These can be found in scientific journals or via an online search.
3. 3
   Visit the library. Take a trip to your local library or university library. Although it may seem old fashioned, libraries are chock full of helpful research materials from books to newspapers and magazines to journals.. Don’t be afraid to ask the librarian for help either - they are trained in research and know where everything about your topic is located.
4. 4
   Look online. Using a search engine and picking the top three results isn’t necessarily the best method of researching; use critical thinking to thoroughly read every source and determine if it is legitimate. Websites, blogs, and forums online aren’t required to publish facts only, so make sure that the information you find is trustworthy.
   • Typically, websites that end with .edu, .gov, or .org contain information that is safe to use. That is because these websites belong to schools, the government, or organizations dealing with your topic.
   • Try changing your search query often to find different search results for your topic. If nothing seems to be coming up, it could just be that your search query isn’t matched well with the titles of most articles dealing with your subject.
5. 5
   Use academic databases. There are special search engines and academic databases available that search through thousands of peer-reviewed or scientifically published journals, magazines, and books. Although many of these require a paid membership to use, if you are a current student in college you have free access through your university’s membership.
   • Look for databases that cover your subject only. For example, PschInfo is an academic database that holds nothing but works done by authors in the field of psychology and sociology. This will help you to get a more tailored results than a very general search would.^[2]
   • Most academic databases give you the ability to ask for very specific information by presenting multiple search query boxes as well as archives containing only a single type of resource (such as only journal articles or only newspapers). Take advantage of this ability to ask for specific information by using as many of the query boxes as you can.
   • Visit your school library and ask the librarian for a full list of the academic databases they subscribe to, as well as the passwords for each.
6. 6
   Get creative with your research. If you find one really awesome book or journal that fits your topic perfectly, try looking in the works cited/bibliography/reference list at the end of it. This should contain many more books and journals that are about your topic as well.

Method 3 of 4: Making an Outline

1. 1
   Annotate your research. Once you’ve gathered all your research, print it out (if it is an online source) and gather post-its or anything you need to mark notes in the books/magazines you are using. This step is very important: read through your research, take notes on what you think is important, and highlight key facts and phrases. Write directly on copies you’ve made, or use slips of paper tucked into pages to mark places of importance.^[3]
   • Do a thorough job annotating to make your outlining and paper-writing easier in the end. Make marks on anything that you think might be remotely important or that could be put to use in your paper.
   • As you mark off important pieces in the research, add your own commentary and notes explaining to yourself where you might use it in your paper. Writing down your ideas as you have them will make writing your paper much easier and give you something to refer back to.
2. 2
   Organize your notes. Annotating your research can take quite a bit of time, but needs to be taken one step further in order to add a bit more clarity for the outlining process. Organize your notes by collecting all of your highlighted phrases and ideas into categories based on topic. For example, if you are writing a paper analyzing a famous work of literature, you could organize your research into a list of notes on the characters, a list of references to certain points in the plot, a list of symbols the author presents, et cetera.
   • Try writing each quote or item that you marked onto an individual note card. That way, you can rearrange and lay out your cards however you would like.
   • Color code your notes to make it easier. For example, write down a list of all the notes you are using from each individual resource, and then highlight each category of information in a different color. For example, write everything from a particular book or journal on a single sheet of paper in order to consolidate the notes, and then everything that is related to characters highlight in green, everything related to the plot mark in orange, et cetera.
3. 3
   Construct a preliminary bibliography/references page. As you go through your notes, mark down the author, page number, title, and publishing information for each resource. This will come in handy when you craft your bibliography or works cited page later in the game.
4. 
   4
   Identify the goal of the paper. Generally, speaking, there are two types of research paper: an argumentative research paper or an analytical research paper. Each requires a slightly different focus and writing style which should be identified prior to starting a rough draft.
   • An argumentative research paper takes a position on a contentious issue and argues for one point of view. The issue should be debatable with a logical counter argument.
   • An analytical research paper offers a fresh look at an important issue. The subject may not be controversial, but you must attempt to persuade your audience that your ideas have merit. This is not simply a regurgitation of ideas from your research, but an offering of your own unique ideas based off of what you have learned through research.
5. 5
   Determine your audience. Who would be reading this paper, should it be published? Although you want to write for your professor or other superior, it is important that the tone and focus of your paper reflect the audience who will be reading it. If you’re writing for academic peers, then the information you include should reflect the information you already know; you don’t need to explain basic ideas or theories. On the other hand, if you are writing for an audience who doesn’t know much about your subject, it will be important to include explanations and examples of more fundamental ideas and theories related to your research.^[4]
6. 
   6
   Develop your thesis. The thesis statement is a 1-2 sentence statement at the beginning of your paper that states the main goal or argument of your paper. Although you can alter the wording of your thesis statement for the final draft later, coming up with the main goal of your essay must be done in the beginning. All of your body paragraphs and information will revolve around your thesis, so make sure that you are clear on what your thesis is.^[5]
   • An easy way to develop your thesis is to make it into a question that your essay will answer. What is the primary question or hypothesis that you are going to go about proving in your paper? For example, your thesis question might be “how does cultural acceptance change the success of treatment for mental illness?” This can then determine what your thesis is - whatever your answer to the question is, is your thesis statement.
   • Your thesis should express the main idea of your paper without listing all of your reasons or outlining your entire paper. It should be a simple statement, rather than a list of support; that’s what the rest of your paper is for!
7. 7
   Determine your main points. The body of your essay will revolve around the ideas that you judge to be most important. Go through your research and annotations to determine what points are the most pivotal in your argument or presentation of information. What ideas can you write whole paragraphs about? Which ideas to you have plenty of firm facts and research to back with evidence? Write your main points down on paper, and then organize the related research under each.
   • When you outline your main ideas, putting them in a specific order is important. Place your strongest points at the beginning and end of your essay, with more mediocre points placed in the middle or near the end of your essay.
   • A single main point doesn’t have to be kept to a single paragraph, especially if you are writing a relatively long research paper. Main ideas can be spread out over as many paragraphs as you deem necessary.
8. 8
   Consider formatting guidelines. Depending on your paper rubric, class guidelines, or formatting guidelines, you may have to organize your paper in a specific way. For example, when writing in APA format you must organize your paper by headings including the introduction, methods, results, and discussion. These guidelines will alter the way you craft your outline and final paper.^[6]
9. 9
   Finalize your outline. With the aforementioned tips taken into consideration, organize your entire outline. Justify main points to the left, and indent subsections and notes from your research below each. The outline should be an overview of your entire paper in bullet points. Make sure to include in-text citations at the end of each point, so that you don’t have to constantly refer back to your research when writing your final paper.

Method 4 of 4: Writing Your Paper

1. 1
   Write your body paragraphs. Although it may seem counterintuitive, writing your introduction first may be more difficult to accomplish than starting with the meat of your paper. Starting by writing the main points (focusing on supporting your thesis) allows you to slightly change and manipulate your ideas and commentary.
   • Support every statement you make with evidence. Because this is a research paper, there shouldn’t be any remarks that you make that cannot be supported by facts directly from your research.
   • Supply ample explanations for your research. The opposite of stating opinions without facts, is stating facts with no commentary. Although you certainly want to present plenty of evidence, make sure that your paper is uniquely your own by adding commentary in whenever possible.
   • Avoid using many long, direct quotes. Although your paper is based on research, the point is for you to present your own ideas. Unless the quote you intend on using is absolutely necessary, try paraphrasing and analyzing it in your own words instead.
   • Use clear segues into adjacent points in your paper. Your essay should flow well, rather than stopping and starting in a blunt fashion. Make sure that each of your body paragraphs flows nicely into the one after it.
2. 
   2
   Write the conclusion. Now that you have carefully worked through your evidence, write a conclusion that briefly summarizes your findings for the reader and provides a sense of closure. Start by briefly restating the thesis statement, then remind the reader of the points you covered over the course of the paper. Slowly zoom out of the topic as you write, ending on a broad note by emphasizing the larger implication of your findings.
   • The goal of the conclusion, in very simplified terms, is to answer the question, “So what?” Make sure the reader feels like (s)he’s come away with something.
   • It’s a good idea to write the conclusion before the introduction for several reasons. First of all, the conclusion is easier to write when the evidence is still fresh in your mind. On top of that, it’s recommended that you use up your most choice language in the conclusion and then reword these ideas less strongly in the introduction, not the other way around; this will leave a more lasting impression on the reader.
3. 
   3
   Write the introduction. The introduction is, in many respects, the conclusion written in reverse: start by generally introducing the larger topic, then orient the reader in the area you’ve focused on, and finally, supply the thesis statement. Avoid repeating exact phrases that you already used in the conclusion.
4. 4
   Document your paper. All research essays must be documented in certain ways in order to avoid plagiarism. Depending on the topic of your research and your field of study, you will have to use different styles of formatting. MLA, APA, and Chicago are the three most common citation formats and determine the way in-text citations or footnotes should be used, as well as the order of information in your paper.
   • MLA format is typically used for literary research papers and uses a ‘works cited’ page at the end. This format requires in-text citations.
   • APA format is used by researchers in the social sciences field, and requires in-text citations as well. It ends the paper with a “references” page, and may also have section headers between body paragraphs.
   • Chicago formatting is used mainly for historical research papers and uses footnotes at the bottom of each page rather than in-text citations and a works cited or references page.^[7]
5. 
   5
   Edit your rough draft. Although it is tempting to simply read over your essay and use the spell-check tool, editing your paper should be a bit more in-depth. Have at least one, but preferably two or more, person/people look over your essay. Have them edit for basic grammatical and spelling errors as well as the persuasiveness of your essay and the flow and form of your paper.
   • If you edit your own paper, wait at least three days before returning to it. Studies show that your writing is still fresh in your mind for 2-3 days after finishing, and so you are more likely to skim over basic mistakes that you would otherwise catch.
   • Don’t ignore edits by others just because they require a bit more work. If they suggest that you rewrite a section of your paper, there is probably a valid reason for their request. Take the time to edit your paper thoroughly.^[8]
6. 6
   Create the final draft. When you have edited and re-edited your paper, formatted your work according to the subject matter, and finalized all the main points, you are ready to create the final draft. Go through your paper and fix all mistakes, rearranging information if necessary. Adjust the font, line spacing, and margins to meet the requirements set by your professor or profession. If necessary, create an introduction page and a works cited or references page to bookend your paper. The completion of these tasks finalizes your paper! Make sure to save the paper (in multiple places, for extra security) and print out your final draft.

Sample Research Papers

Sample Scientific Research Paper

Sample Literary Research Paper

Sample Environmental Research Paper

Tips

• Be sure to get your assigments done on time.
• Look for the important themes, questions and key issues when researching. Try to hone in on what you really want to explore rather than having too many broad ideas in the paper.
• Do not wait until the last minute to do so.

 

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How to Communicate Effectively

(Thought-Random)

Edited by Samuel, Nathan Wong, Lauren Lewis, Wes Platt and 72 others

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       

         No matter our age, background, or experience, effective communication is a  skill you can learn. The greatest leaders of all time are also fantastic communicators and orators. In fact,communications is  one of the most popular college degrees today; people recognize the value of a truly efficient communicator. With a little self-confidence and knowledge of the basics, you'll be able to get your point across in no time.

Method 1 of 5: Creating The Right Environment For Communication

1. 
   1
   Choose the right time. As the cliché states, there is a time and a place for everything, and communicating is no different.
   • Avoid leaving discussions about heavy topics such as finances or weekly planning until late evening. Few people will be thrilled to be faced with sorting out major issues when they're at their most tired. Instead, leave heavy topics for mornings and afternoons when people are alert, available, and more likely to be able to respond with clarity.
2. 2
   An intimate conversation Choose the right place. If you need to tell someone something that isn't going to be well received (such as news of a death or a breakup), don't do it in public, around colleagues or near other people. Be respectful and mindful of the person receiving the communication and communicate to them in a private place. This will also enable you to provide space to open dialog with them about the communication, and helps to ensure that the two-way process is occurring properly.
   • If you are presenting to a group of people, be sure to check the acoustics beforehand and practice projecting your voice clearly. Use a microphone if needed to ensure that your audience can hear you.
3. 
   3
   Remove distractions. Turn off ALL electronics that could go off during the conversation. If the phone rings, laugh it off the first time, then turn it off immediately and continue talking. Do not allow external distractions to act as crutches that keep sidetracking your concentration. They will distract both you and your listener, and effectively kill the communication. 

Method 2 of 5: Organizing Your Communications

1. 
   1
   Organize and clarify ideas in your mind. This should be done before you attempt to communicate these ideas. If you are feeling passionate about a topic, you may become garbled if you haven't already thought of some key points to stick to when communicating it.
   • A good rule of thumb is to choose three main points and keep your communication focused on those. That way, if the topic wanders off course, you will be able to return to one or more of these three key points without feeling flustered. Writing these key points down (if it's appropriate) can also help.
2. 2
   Be clear. Make it clear what you're wishing to convey from the outset. For example, your purpose could be to inform others, obtain information or initiate action. People need to know in advance what you expect from your communication.
3. 3
   Stay on topic. Once you start addressing your three main points, make sure everything you're saying adds to the conversation or debate. If you have already thought through the issues and the essence of the ideas that you wish to put across, it is likely that some pertinent phrases will stick in your mind. Do not be afraid to use these to underline your points. Even very confident and well-known speakers reuse their key lines again and again for major effect.
4. 4
   Thank your listener(s). Thank the person or group for the time taken to listen and respond. No matter what the outcome of your communication, even if the response to your talk or discussion has been negative, it is good manners to end it politely and with respect for everyone's input and time.

Method 3 of 5: Communicating Through Speech

1. 1
   Set the listener at ease. You want to do this before launching into your conversation or presentation. It can help sometimes to begin with a favorite anecdote. This helps the listener identify with you as someone like them.
2. 2
   Be articulate. It is important to speak clearly so that the message comes across in a way that every listener can understand. Your words are remembered because people instantly understand what it is that you are saying. It means uttering your words distinctly, preferring simpler words over more complex ones and speaking at a level guaranteed to be heard, but without coming across as too quiet or disengaged.
3. 
   3
   Avoid mumbling. Take special care to enunciate highlighted points you need to make in order to avoid any kind of misunderstanding. If mumbling is a defensive habit that you have fallen into out of fear of communicating, practice your message at home in front of the mirror. Discuss what you want to communicate with those you feel comfortable around first in order to better develop the message in your own mind. Both the practice and the development of your words for the messaging will build your confidence.
4. 4
   Be attentive when listening and ensure that your facial expressions reflect your interest.]] Listen actively. Communication is a two-way street. Remember that while you are talking, you are not learning. In listening, you will be able to gauge how much of your message is getting through to your listeners and whether or not it is being received correctly. It can be helpful to ask listeners to rephrase some of what you have said in their own words if they appear to be returning confused or mistaken views to you.
5. 
   5
   Be vocally interesting. A monotone is not pleasing to the ear. A good communicator will use "vocal color" to enhance communication. Norma Michael recommends raising the pitch and volume of your voice when you transition from one topic or point to another, and to increase your volume and slow down your voice whenever you are raising a special point or summing up.^[1] She also recommends speaking briskly, but pausing to emphasize keywords when you are requesting action.

Method 4 of 5: Communicating Through Body Language

1. 1
   Recognize people. Sure, you don't necessarily know the people in your audience or that new friend in your group, but they're nodding along with you and looking knowingly at you all the same. This means that they are connecting with you. So reward them with your acknowledgment.
2. 2
   Clarity of meaning can be expressed through your body language, too.|right]]Use facial expressions consciously. Aim to reflect passion and generate empathy from the listener by using soft, gentle, and aware facial expressions. Avoid negative facial expressions, such as frowns or raised eyebrows. What is or isn't negative is dependent on the context, including cultural context, so be guided by your situation.
   • Be alert for unexpected behavior that suggests you're cross-culturally colliding, such as a clenched fist, a slouched posture, or even silence.^[2] If you don't know the culture, ask questions about communication challenges before you start to speak with people in their cultural context.
3. 
   3
   Communicate eye-to-eye. Eye contact establishes rapport, helps to convince people that you're trustworthy, and displays interest. During a conversation or presentation, it is important to look into the other person's eyes if possible and maintain contact for a reasonable amount of time (but don't overdo it; just as much as feels natural, about 2-4 seconds at a time).^[3]
   • Remember to take in all of your audience. If you're addressing a boardroom, look every member of the board in the eye. Neglecting any single person can easily be taken as a sign of offense and could lose you business, admission, success, or whatever it is you are endeavoring to achieve.
   • If you're addressing an audience, pause and make eye contact with a member of audience for up to 2 seconds before breaking away and resuming your talk. This helps to make individual members of the audience feel personally valued.
   • Be aware that eye contact is culturally ordained. In some cultures it is considered to be unsettling, or inappropriate. Ask or research in advance.
4. 4
   Use breathing and pauses to your advantage. There is power in pausing. Simon Reynolds says that pausing causes an audience to lean in and listen. It helps you to emphasize your points and allow the listener time to digest what has been said. It also helps to make your communication come across as more compelling and it makes your speech easier to listen to.^[4]
   • Take deep breaths to steady yourself before you begin communicating.
   • Get into the habit of solid, regular breathing during a conversation that will help you to keep a steady, calm voice. It will also keep you more relaxed.
   • Use pauses to take a breather in what you are saying.
5. 5
   How does this gesture come across?|right]]Use hand gestures carefully. Be conscious of what your hands are saying as you speak. Some hand gestures can be very effective in highlighting your points (open gestures), while others can be distracting or even offensive to some listeners, and can lead to the conversation or listening being closed down (closed gestures). It also helps to watch other people's hand gestures to see how they come across to you.
6. 6
   Keep a check on other body language signals. Watch for wandering eyes, hands picking at fluff on your clothing and constant sniffling. These small gestures add up and are all guaranteed to dampen the effectiveness of your message.

Method 5 of 5: Communicating Effectively In Conflict

1. 
   1
   Place yourself on even ground. Do not stand or hover over the other person. This creates a power struggle and pushes the conflict to another level. If they are sitting, you should sit with them.
2. 2
   Listen to the other party. Let them say how they feel. Wait until they are completely finished talking before beginning to speak yourself.
3. 3
   Speak in a calm voice. Don't yell or make accusations at the other party. Let them know you have heard their point and understand their side.
4. 4
   Don't try to finish the argument at all costs. If the person walks out of the room, don't follow them. Allow them to do so and let them return when they are calmer and ready to talk.
5. 5
   Don't try to get the last word in. Again, this could lead to a power struggle that may not end. Sometimes, you have to agree to disagree and move on.
6. 6
   Use "I" messages. When you're phrasing your concerns, try to start your sentences with "I...". This will make the other person more receptive to your complaints. For instance, instead of saying "You're sloppy and it drives me crazy," try "I feel like messiness is a problem in our relationship."

TIPS

• Don't ramble. This will lead to your message not being understood or taken seriously
• Be careful with humor. While a little humor injected into what you are discussing can be very effective, do not take it too far and do not rely on it as a crutch to cover up the hard-to-say things. If you keep giggling and joking, your communication will not be taken seriously.
• Do not whine or plead. Neither is guaranteed to instill respect or interest in the listener. If you are very upset, excuse yourself and come back to the discussion later when you have had a chance to think it through.
• Look on the Internet for examples of great speakers in action. There are plenty of role models instantly accessible through videos online. Treat them as your "personal communications coaches!"
• If you are giving a presentation to a group or audience, be prepared for difficult questions so that you're not thrown off course and left feeling flustered. To remain in a position of communicating effectively, Michael Brown recommends a golden rule for handling difficult questions in the context of a group or audience. He suggests that you listen on behalf of everyone present, including asking questions and repeating the issue. Share the reply with everyone, which means moving your eyes off the questioner and onto all present in order to have the whole group "wear the answer." Capitalize on this shared answer to move on and change direction.^[5]

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